A political era has ended in Bolivia. The ruling party, Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS), is projected to fall from its comfortable majority of 96 out of 166 seats in both chambers to a staggering total of two seats in the new legislature. MAS is not just any Bolivian party. After the party rose to power under its prominent indigenous leader, Evo Morales, 20 years ago, MAS transformed the political landscape of the Andean country.
Being the first indigenous president in Bolivia’s history, Evo Morales and his movement redefined the political status and self-conception of indigenous people in the country. A new constitution declared Bolivia a plurinational state, recognizing its indigenous diversity and emphasizing the decolonization of the country. With the opposition taking power and MAS having lost much of its support, indigenous communities find themselves politically divided and at risk of further losing political influence. Has Bolivia’s vision of a plurinational state failed?
The Plurinationalist Vision for Bolivia
After a long history of military dictatorships, coups, and short-lived democratic governments, Bolivia was the site of a unique political movement that led to Evo Morales being elected as the country’s first indigenous president in 2005. Morales’ party MAS not only defined itself as a left, socialist party, but also as an anti-colonialist force that pledged to end Bolivia’s dependence from foreign powers. As a former coca union organizer, Morales represented a symbol of both a historic indigenous struggle and rural aspirations. Yet, he managed to form a broad coalition by emphasizing ethnic and class relations, claiming the highest electoral majority since the country’s return to democracy.
In its first years in power, MAS undertook what the party called a “cultural democratic revolution.” In 2006, a constitutional assembly made up of hundreds of predominantly indigenous representatives gave Bolivia a new constitution, which was adopted in a referendum in 2009. The new constitution declared Bolivia a plurinationalist state and recognized 36 official indigenous nations and their respective languages. Recognizing the variety of indigenous nations with their respective cultures and restoring their autonomy within one state is, thus, the essential idea behind plurinationalism.
This transformation meant not just a formal change; it represented a broader, newly gained self-consciousness and pride of indigenous communities in a country that had treated indigenous people as second-class citizens for much of its history. Breaking with this past, the new constitution emphasized decolonization as the means to build a society of interculturality.
Real Progress or Symbolic Politics?
Looking back on 20 years of MAS rule now, was the party able to pursue structural change in Bolivia? Being a party with a large number of indigenous members, MAS provided indigenous people access to the political sphere like never before. Not only did numerous indigenous women enter the parliament, but MAS also appointed indigenous people to official state positions. The new constitution foresaw extra channels of representation for indigenous people, and reserved seven special indigenous constituencies in the Chamber of Deputies. This meant that some indigenous votes could count towards both their representative and the general election, giving them larger political influence. Additionally, possibilities for self-governing of indigenous communities opened up with the status of Community Lands of Origin, which represent 21 percent of the total land mass.
As MAS’s rule continued, however, more and more concerns about their commitment to the plurinational vision arose. One has to see that Bolivia incorporates a large heterogeneous set of indigenous communities, yet MAS core supporters are mostly located in the Aymara communities in the highlands, as well as coca-growers in mountainous areas. When MAS laid out a vision to build a highway that would threaten the independence of a recognized indigenous community in the lowlands, it was largely perceived as a break of the plurinational vision in favor of coca-growers and economic interests. A protest against the project was violently put down.
Such incidents show how MAS centralized power during its rule. Nancy Postero, the author of “The Indigenous State,” describes how MAS’s consolidation of power led to the fact that its support for indigenous self-determination waned. Further, she says: “Morales continues to invoke indigenous history and culture, but he does so in performances of a state-controlled version of indigeneity that legitimizes state power.” With more and more former advocates turning their backs on MAS, the party is left with a “reduced but radicalized” support base that has led to political violence spiking in recent years.
Another shortcoming in achieving the plurinational promise lies in the failed decolonial transformation of Bolivia’s economic model. Rich in resources such as Lithium and natural Gas, the landlocked country relied heavily on commodity exports. While MAS nationalized Oil and Gas companies, the country did not change its extractivist model. Instead, it used the revenues of commodities to fund social programs, which achieved progress in reducing poverty, especially for indigenous people, yet arguably only increased dependence on resources. Eduardo Gudynas calls this economic model neoextractivism. The state, thus, takes up a more active role in the resource extraction process while impeding structural transformation.
This has led former advocates of MAS to abandon the party. Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, a prominent indigenous anti-colonial scholar and author of “Myth and Development in Bolivia: The Colonial Turn of the MAS government,” describes how MAS reconfigured and re-legitimized colonial power structures instead of dismantling them. While the language changed from neoliberalism to national sovereignty, the logic remained colonial. Cusicanqui writes: “The image of the Indian is celebrated, while Indigenous power is contained.”
What Will This Election Entail for Indigenous Life?
The recent election cements the fact that MAS has lost vast amounts of its support among indigenous communities. The next president will result from a run-off between the centrist Rodrigo Paz and the right-wing ex-president Jorge “Tito” Quiroga. Both candidates have pledged to further open Bolivia’s markets to foreign investors and expand the exploitation of Bolivia’s natural resources. While Paz has advocated for “capitalism for all,” Quiroga has called for a drastic shift in Bolivia’s politics, wanting to “open Bolivia up to the world.” This is not just a rhetorical departure from the narrative of decolonization.
Expanding the exploitative economic model could affect indigenous communities both directly and indirectly. New infrastructure projects threaten the autonomy of indigenous lands and their self-governing status. Quiroga’s pro-privatization stance will likely affect resource ownership rights in favor of large corporations that have previously been controlled by indigenous communities. At the same time, these projects could lead to detrimental environmental effects. A key resource lies in Bolivia’s vast, oftentimes undeveloped Lithium reserves that count towards the biggest known in the world. With the demand projected to explode in the next few years, both candidates are seeking to make Bolivia profit from Lithium. Yet, the exploitation could affect ecosystems in the Andes and shorten water supply for indigenous communities.
What was already a difficult balance between indigenous autonomy and economic opportunities will thus likely further turn in favor of the latter under a new government. Indigenous political influence and representation are likely to shrink, especially if Quiroga claims the presidency.
Has the Plurinational Project Failed?
The recent election and the implosion of MAS symbolize the failure of what was once a promising vision for Bolivia. But the reality is, the reasons for this failure far precede the election. While MAS gave indigenous communities unprecedented access to the political sphere, the party failed to achieve real, long-lasting representation of indigenous people, due to its centralization of power. Moreover, MAS could not fulfill its promise of a true decolonization of the country, with the reliance on commodities and external markets only rising under MAS rule.
The recent election, thus, is more of a symptom than the cause of a decline in indigenous political rights. Whichever candidate wins in the run-off, indigenous communities find themselves divided, fearing falling prey to economic opportunities without a strong political influence. While the plurinational vision for Bolivia failed politically, it has uplifted the spirit and sense of unity among Bolivian indigenous people, who will keep on demanding true representation.
Featured Image Source: PBS
